Friday, August 29, 2008

Relámpago

Psalm 4:1

Hear me when I call, O God of my righteousness: thou hast enlarged me when I was in distress; have mercy upon me, and hear my prayer. Когда я взываю, услышь меня, Боже правды моей! В тесноте Ты давал мне простор. Помилуй меня и услышь молитву мою.

chess: “relámpago”




Los intelectuales

"Los hombres desean obedecer a un jefe", dice Régis Debray

Es instintivo, señala el pensador francés

Por Luisa Corradini
Corresponsal en Francia

PARIS.? Hace tiempo que en nuestras sociedades igualitarias, horizontales y democráticas se considera que el jefe es una especie en vías de extinción. La realidad, sin embargo, parece demostrar lo contrario. "Aun en democracia existe en el hombre un deseo de jefe, un deseo arcaico que debe encarnarse en rituales, procedimientos y palabras que autorizan a alguien a dirigir a los demás", dijo a LA NACION el filósofo y escritor Régis Debray.

En una de las escasas entrevistas concedidas a un medio latinoamericano desde su aventura guerrillera en Cuba y en Bolivia, en los años 60, Debray aceptó reflexionar sobre esa figura controvertida "pero necesaria", sin la cual un grupo humano, cualquiera que sea, está "indefectiblemente condenado a la disolución".

A los 68 años, Debray divide su tiempo entre la escritura y la dirección de la revista Médium. Esa publicación trimestral es el órgano de difusión de una nueva disciplina, inventada por él, bautizada "mediología".

Irónico, provocador, admirado y detestado con igual intensidad por amigos y detractores, el antiguo compañero del Che Guevara, amigo de Fidel Castro y consejero de François Mitterrand sabe de qué habla cuando analiza las cualidades esenciales de un jefe. "Jefe es alguien capaz de transformar un montón de cosas dispersas en un todo coherente", resume.

-En las grandes democracias del siglo XXI, la gente tiende a pensar que ya no debería haber jefes. En uno de los últimos números de su revista, usted afirma que es todo lo contrario.

-En democracia se ha instaurado una suerte de hipocresía. La gente dice que el jefe no es bueno, que es algo superado, que hay que burlarse de él. Sin embargo, todavía hay jefes, e incluso los hay cada vez más.

-¿Por qué razón?

-Porque hay una constante que atraviesa la historia, que es lo político. En el fondo, lo político consiste en evitar lo peor. Y ¿qué es lo peor para un grupo humano? La desunión, el desmembramiento, la disolución. El jefe existe para lograr la unidad. Sea donde sea -en un equipo de fútbol, una empresa o un país-, el jefe es el que mantiene la cohesión o produce la unidad en el seno de una multitud.

-¿De qué manera lo consigue?

-Es curioso, pero eso pasa siempre por la palabra. El jefe es, siempre, un hombre de palabras. Una palabra que cristaliza, que dinamiza, que construye el rebaño. Me estoy refiriendo al rey pastor, que no es el único arquetipo.

-¿Cuáles son las características del rey pastor?

-Es el que muestra el camino. Moisés es el ejemplo perfecto. Es la versión semítica, arcaica, pero también fueron reyes pastores Mussolini y Hitler, pasando por Bonaparte.

-¿Y el otro modelo?

-Es el rey tejedor, el preferido de Platón. Su trabajo es conciliar a los audaces y a los conservadores. En toda sociedad están aquellos que quieren cambiar y aquellos que quieren conservar. El papel del jefe tejedor es armonizar la cadena y la trama, hacer compatible lo que en principio no lo es. Simbólicamente, el rey tejedor debe fabricar un abrigo que protegerá al grupo del frío, del desmembramiento, de la dispersión. Me estoy refiriendo a dos modelos fundamentales, pero muy actuales, de jefe.

-Usted afirma que en la sociedad actual hay un auténtico deseo de jefe.

-Eso puede entenderse en dos sentidos. Uno que es muy feo y que quiere decir sentir el deseo de ser jefe. Aunque, después de todo, ¿quién no tiene ese deseo? Pero también existe el deseo de tener un jefe. La gente desea tener un jefe cuando se siente amenazada por la disolución.

-Usted conoció numerosos tipos de jefe. Hábleme de algunos.

-Hay muchas modalidades de jefe. Hay un jefe distante, como De Gaulle o el Che Guevara. Esta aproximación le parecerá sorprendente, pero ambos eran personas que se mantenían a distancia con una cierta frialdad, con un cierto déficit voluntario de comunicación. Después está el jefe efusivo, el jefe de proximidad. Pienso, por ejemplo, en Fidel Castro.

-Sea un poco más explícito sobre el Che y Fidel.

-No. Creo que todo lo que tenía que decir sobre ellos lo dije en mi libro de memorias.

-¿Qué otras características debe tener un jefe?

-El jefe es el maître des horloges (el dueño del tiempo). No se deja imponer el tiempo: crea su ritmo. Crear el calendario es un privilegio del jefe. El jefe es amado por los suyos, pero él puede no amarlos. Es alguien que tiene el privilegio de no amar. Eso es lo que se llama la impasibilidad del jefe, hasta su indiferencia. Una vez le pregunté a François Mitterrand cuál era su secreto. Me contestó: "La indiferencia". Es hermoso, ¿no? Se trata de una cierta ecuanimidad, una cierta distancia con todo el mundo, mientras que todo el mundo debe estar cerca, debe sentirse cercano al jefe y sobre todo amado por él. El jefe es la persona capaz de cerrar los dientes y de tener suficiente confianza en sí mismo como para inspirar a los demás. El jefe tiene esa capacidad que a veces se llama la implacabilidad, que es muy fácil de admitir en la guerra. Es la razón por la cual las mejores reflexiones sobre los jefes vienen de gente que hizo la guerra. Pienso, sobre todo, en el historiador Marc Bloch. En un libro que se llama La extraña derrota , reflexiona sobre el jefe, sobre lo que es un verdadero jefe. Para Bloch, el jefe debe tener dominio de sí mismo y ser implacable.

-Pero Bloch se refiere sobre todo al jefe militar. ¿Qué país de Occidente necesita ese tipo de jefes excepto en el ámbito castrense?

-Es evidente que la guerra es el grupo en fusión. Es la efervescencia, la fiesta de la identidad; es una contracción, pero también una extraordinaria producción de altruismo, un gran derroche libidinal, como diría Freud, donde todos aman al jefe, se identifican con él, están dispuestos a sacrificarse por él. Efectivamente, la guerra es el espacio de lo sagrado. Pero a veces hay transferencia de sacralidad. Cuando ahora se hace una ceremonia a las puertas de Auschwitz, es posible recuperar aquellos sentimientos.

-¿El jefe no duda?

-No. Por eso es tan difícil para un intelectual ser jefe. Porque, por definición, un intelectual es aquel que duda siempre, que pone en tela de juicio sus ideas y sus opiniones.

-La figura de Sartre en ese sentido es ejemplar.

-Exactamente. Sartre rechaza la comedia del jefe, es decir, en el fondo, la comedia del padre. Sartre no quiso ser ni padre ni jefe.

-¿Y la revolución qué es? ¿Es el rechazo a tener jefes?

-El ideal revolucionario es la eficacia de la acción. Eso reclama una organización, con un partido, una vanguardia, un ejército y, en consecuencia, un jefe. Mi período revolucionario estuvo rodeado de jefes.

-¿Y la ambición de libertad?

-Esa es la tragedia: se hace la revolución para dejar de tener jefes y se termina con un superjefe. Eso fue también la Revolución Francesa, que quiso suprimir el Estado absolutista y terminó construyendo un superabsolutismo. Ese es el humor negro de la revolución. En todo caso, cuando una revolución no tiene jefe, no va demasiado lejos. Cuando tiene demasiados, se transforma rápidamente en dictadura o en restauración. Pero ¿quién dijo que la revolución no es una tragedia?

-¿Usted no desconfía de los jefes?

-Naturalmente. Sé que son necesarios, pero yo pido jefes condicionales y no incondicionales, es decir, jefes sometidos al único soberano, que es el pueblo.

-¿Es posible aprender a ser jefe?

-Hay un temperamento de jefe, una libido de jefe. Se lo tiene o no. De todos modos, hay numerosas escuelas de líderes en varios países. Los norteamericanos tienen esas escuelas, pero el jefe es el encuentro entre una personalidad y una coyuntura. Eso no se aprende.

-Un jefe debe cuidar su imagen...

-El jefe que se deja ver con demasiada frecuencia en remera, haciendo jogging , corre el riesgo de perder su autoridad. El rey tiene dos cuerpos: uno profano y uno sagrado. Uno simbólico, el de su imagen oficial, ese que permite construir el imaginario colectivo, una imagen magnificada, solemne, y el cuerpo físico. Cuando se muestra demasiado ese cuerpo físico, se revela el individuo. Y el individuo es como los otros.

-O sea que el jefe es mucho más que un individuo.

-El jefe es un colectivo individualizado, un colectivo sublimado. Es necesario que el jefe sea una sublimación. Es teatro, dirá usted. Sí, pero el teatro forma parte de la vida política.

-En la actualidad, hasta el principio de la autoridad parece superado. En nuestras sociedades, ¿lo que cuenta no son la influencia y las redes?

-Es verdad que hoy la palabra "jefe" es una palabra obscena. Cuando en Médium decidimos reflexionar sobre lo que es un jefe, quisimos terminar con ese tabú. El jefe existe: hay que saberlo para no caer en la mistificación del jefe.

-¿Es decir?

-Que de tanto rechazar el jefe, uno termina aceptando el primero que aparece. Es como con la sexualidad: es mejor hablar de ella para que no termine aplastándonos. Mejor hablar del jefe para prevenir lo peor, que es la mistificación del jefe, el culto de la personalidad y todas las manifestaciones extremistas de la autoridad.

-¿Qué es para usted la autoridad?

-La autoridad es moral es imaginaria, no reposa sobre la fuerza bruta. No es una cuestión de músculos ni de número. La autoridad es una cuestión de creencia o de conocimientos. El maestro tiene autoridad en una clase. Es necesario que la tenga, de lo contrario, se producirá un desorden y el pequeño cacique del curso terminará por tomar el poder. Eso no será bueno ni para los alumnos ni para el conocimiento. Creo que la autoridad es la protección contra el poder. Y no creo ser reaccionario diciendo esto. Porque tratar de que un petimetre no termine creyéndose el patrón es justamente la democracia.










Tuesday, August 26, 2008

Non-Spherical Magnetic Cows!

Bueno he aquí, para los que puedan leer en inglés, una nota interesante más del "blog group" Cosmic Variance.



image from blog: Images that Speak to Me.
Cosmic Variance
Non-Spherical Magnetic Cows!
Mark at 1:54 pm, August 26th, 2008

Physicists often simplify or idealize phenomena to make them more amenable to an initial mathematical treatment. We jokingly refer to this as considering a “spherical cow”. Sometimes one can understand even very subtle phenomena using this technique. However, there are always important effects that one needs the full, non-symmetric nature of the situation to understand.

Here, from The Telegraph, is an example of experimental data illustrating just this point (emphasis mine)!

Dr Sabine Begall and colleagues from the University of Duisburg-Essen looked at thousands of images of cattle on Google Earth in Britain, Ireland, India and the USA. They also studied 3,000 deer in the Czech Republic. The deer tended to face north when resting or grazing.

Although, in many cases, the images were not clear enough to determine which way the cattle were facing they were aligned on a north/south axis.

The scientists concluded that they were behaving in the same way as the deer.

Huge variations in the wind direction and sunlight in the areas where the beasts were found meant that the scientists were able to rule out those factors as being responsible for the direction they were facing.

“We conclude that the magnetic field is the only common and most likely factor responsible for the observed alignment,” the scientists wrote in an article published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences journal.

All joking aside, I found this fascinating. It is hard to see why this feature would be useful to cows these days, but if you accept the evil theory of evolution, things become a lot clearer.

Their innate ability to find north is believed to be a relic from the days when their wild ancestors needed an accurate sense of direction to migrate across the plains of Africa, Asia and Europe.

Monday, August 25, 2008

WALL-E revisited



Prov.4:19"The way of the wicked is as darkness: they know not at what they stumble."






 Chess: “DS” “Dos” “Track & Field” “Can can” “Johnny Walker” “Capote” “Kidman” “alcaparras, moras, capers” “Seattle” “Cancún” “kappa"



Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec painted numerous posters and scenes of night life at the Moulin Rouge.

Wellesley Bolt's trip to China a masterstroke
Franklin Johnston
Tuesday, August 26, 2008

Mr Usain Bolt's corporate sponsors, Digicel Jamaica, must be commended for insisting that his father, Mr Wellesley Bolt, make the trip to Beijing, China to celebrate his son's success at the Olympic Games.
For in so doing, they acknowledged the most important element of the father/son relationship... being there when it mattered most.
Yes, Mr Bolt senior could have stayed home and followed his son's celebration via technology. And but for the insight of this corporate entity, he probably would have.
But he would have missed out on one of the most important milestones in his son's life, and nothing, no number of phone calls, no video-link, nothing could have compensated for that.
We highlight the company's gesture because we think it makes the type of point that many fathers in Jamaica need to get, namely that fathering and raising children is a hands-on job that requires the personal touch. This is not something that can reasonably be questioned. It is a fact, ratified by numerous sociological studies, that the presence of a positive father figure does psychologically for children that which nothing else can.


Glyn Hughes' Squashed Philosophers

The Condensed Edition of Ludwig Wittgenstein's
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
... in 3,100 words
"The world is the totality of facts, not of things"
INTRODUCTION
Ludwig Wittgenstein was born in Vienna on 1889 from a family of prosperous Austrian steelmakers and musicians, with an unfortunate family trait of depression- three of his four brothers committed suicide.
He was educated at home untill the age of 14, then at the Realschule in Linz, where Adolf Hitler was a fellow-pupil. It has been argued (by Kimberly Cornish, in The Jew of Linz) that Wittgenstein is the hated Jewish boy mentioned by Hitler in Mein Kampf. Wittgenstein went on to study aeronautical engineering at Manchester, the complexities of which led him to question the basis of mathematics and seek an explanation from one of its wise men- Bertrand Russell of Cambridge.
At first Wittgenstein believed that the Tractatus, by viewing all problems as problems of language, had solved all the problems of philosophy, and subsequently gave up academe to work as a schoolteacher and a monastery gardener. Eventually, he criticized his own views and found a new philosophical method and a new understanding of language in the posthumously-published Philosophical Investigations.
THE VERY SQUASHED VERSION1 The world is all that is the case.
1.1 The world is the totality of facts, not of things.
1.11 The world is determined by the facts, and by their being all the facts.
1.12 For the totality of facts determines what is the case, and also whatever is not the case.
2.04 The totality of existing states of affairs is the world.
2.12 A picture is a model of reality.
2.141 A picture is a fact.
2.172 A picture cannot depict its pictorial form: it displays it.
2.19 Logical pictures can depict the world.
2.223 In order to tell whether a picture is true or false we must compare it with reality.
2.224 It is impossible to tell from the picture alone whether it is true or false.
3 A logical picture of facts is a thought.
3.01 The totality of true thoughts is a picture of the world.
3.1 In a proposition a thought finds an expression that can be perceived by the senses.
3.3 Only propositions have sense; only in the nexus of a proposition does a name have meaning.
3.332 No proposition can make a statement about itself, because a propositional sign cannot be contained in itself.
4 A thought is a proposition with a sense.
4.001 The totality of propositions is language.
4.003 Most of the propositions and questions to be found in philosophical works are not false but nonsensical.
4.0031 All philosophy is a 'critique of language'. The apparent logical form of a proposition need not be its real one.
4.11 The totality of true propositions is the whole of natural science
4.21 The simplest kind of proposition, an elementary proposition, asserts the existence of a state of affairs.
4.461 Propositions show what they say; tautologies and contradictions show that they say nothing.
4.464 A tautology's truth is certain, a proposition's possible, a contradiction's impossible.
5.3 All propositions are results of truth-operations on elementary propositions.
5.6 The limits of my language mean the limits of my world.
5.61 We cannot think what we cannot think; so what we cannot think we cannot say either.
5.621 The world and life are one.
5.63 I am my world. (The microcosm.)
6.13 Logic is not a body of doctrine, but a mirror-image of the world. Logic is transcendental.
6.2 Mathematics is a logical method. The propositions of mathematics are equations, and therefore pseudo-propositions.
6.21 A proposition of mathematics does not express a thought.
6.41 The sense of the world must lie outside the world.
6.431 At death the world does not alter, but comes to an end.
6.4311 Death is not an event in life: we do not live to experience death.
6.44 It is not how things are in the world that is mystical, but that it exists.
6.54 My propositions are elucidatory in this way: he who understands me finally recognizes them as senseless, when he has climbed out through them, on them, over them. (He must so to speak throw away the ladder, after he has climbed up it.)
7 What we cannot speak about we must pass over in silence.
THIS SQUASHED VERSIONThis version is based on the translation from the German by C.K. Ogden. 28900 words are reduced to 3100

Tractatus Logico-Philosophicusby Ludwig Wittgenstein, 1921
Squashed version edited by glynhughes@btinternet.com © 2000
INTRODUCTION
By Bertrand Russell FRS

Mr Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, whether or not it prove to give the ultimate truth on the matters with which it deals, certainly deserves, by its breadth and scope and profundity, to be considered an important event in the philosophical world.

In order to understand Mr Wittgenstein's book, it is necessary to realize what is the problem with which he is concerned. In the part of his theory which deals with Symbolism he is concerned with the conditions which would have to be fulfilled by a logically perfect language. The first requisite of an ideal language would be that there should be one name for every simple, and never the same name for two different simples. A name is a simple symbol in the sense that it has no parts which are themselves symbols.

A fact which has no parts that are facts is called by Mr Wittgenstein a Sachverhalt, or an atomic fact. The world is fully described if all atomic facts are known, together with the fact that these are all of them. The world is not described by merely naming all the objects in it; it is necessary also to know the atomic facts of which these objects are constituents. Given this total of atomic facts, every true proposition, however complex, can theoretically be inferred. A proposition (true or false) asserting an atomic fact is called an atomic proposition. All atomic propositions are logically independent of each other. No atomic proposition implies any other or is inconsistent with any other.

Mr Wittgenstein's explanation of his symbolism is not quite fully given in the text. The symbol he uses is
[p,x, N(x,)]
where:
p stands for all atomic propositions.
x, stands for any set of propositions.
N(
x,) stands for the negation of all the propositions making up x.
The whole symbol [p,
x,, N(x,)] means whatever can be obtained by taking any selection of atomic propositions, negating them all, then taking any selection of the set of propositions now obtained, together with any of the originals - and so on indefinitely. This is, he says, the general truth-function and also the general form of proposition. What is meant is somewhat less complicated than it sounds. The symbol is intended to describe a process by the help of which, given the atomic propositions, all others can be manufactured.

From this uniform method of construction we arrive at an amazing simplification of the theory of inference, as well as a definition of the sort of propositions that belong to logic.

To have constructed a theory of logic which is not at any point obviously wrong is to have achieved a work of extraordinary difficulty and importance. This merit, in my opinion, belongs to Mr Wittgenstein's book, and makes it one which no serious philosopher can afford to neglect.

Bertrand Russell
May 1922
DEDICATED
TO THE MEMORY OF MY FRIEND
DAVID H. PINSENT

Motto: . . . und alles, was man weiss, nich bloss rauschen und brausen gehört hat, lässt sich in drei Worten sagen. [and whatever a man knows, whatever is not mere overheard rumbling and roaring, can be said in three words]
- Kürnburger
PREFACE
Perhaps this book will be understood only by someone who has himself already had the thoughts that are expressed in it - or at least similar thoughts. - So it is not a textbook. - Its purpose would be achieved if it gave pleasure to one person who read and understood it. The whole sense of the book might be summed up the following words: what can be said at all can be said clearly, and what we cannot talk about we must pass over in silence.
If this work has any value, it consists in two things: the first is that thoughts are expressed in it, and on this score the better the thoughts are expressed - the more the nail has been hit on the head - the greater will be its value. - Here I am conscious of having fallen a long way short of what is possible. Simply because my powers are too slight for the accomplishment of the task. - May others come and do it better.
L.W. Vienna, 1918
PROPOSITIONS UNDER 1
1 The world is all that is the case.
1.1 The world is the totality of facts, not of things.
1.11 The world is determined by the facts, and by their being all the facts.
1.12 For the totality of facts determines what is the case, and also whatever is not the case.
1.13 The facts in logical space are the world.
1.2 The world divides into facts.
1.21 Each item can be the case or not the case while everything else remains the same.
PROPOSITIONS UNDER 2
2 What is the case - a fact - is the existence of states of affairs.
2.01 A state of affairs (a state of things) is a combination of objects (things).
2.02 Objects are simple.
2.03 In a state of affairs objects fit into one another like the links of a chain.
2.033 Form is the possibility of structure.
2.04 The totality of existing states of affairs is the world.
2.05 The totality of existing states of affairs also determines which states of affairs do not exist.
2.063 The sum-total of reality is the world.
2.1 We picture facts to ourselves.
2.11 A picture presents a situation in logical space, the existence and non-existence of states of affairs.
2.12 A picture is a model of reality.
2.14 What constitutes a picture is that its elements are related to one another in a determinate way.
2.141 A picture is a fact.
2.15 The fact that the elements of a picture are related to one another in a determinate way represents that things are related to one another in the same way.
2.172 A picture cannot, however, depict its pictorial form: it displays it.
2.181 A picture whose pictorial form is logical form is called a logical picture.
2.19 Logical pictures can depict the world.
2.2 A picture has logico-pictorial form in common with what it depicts.
2.221 What a picture represents is its sense.
2.223 In order to tell whether a picture is true or false we must compare it with reality.
2.224 It is impossible to tell from the picture alone whether it is true or false.
2.225 There are no pictures that are true a priori.
PROPOSITIONS UNDER 3
3 A logical picture of facts is a thought.
3.01 The totality of true thoughts is a picture of the world.
3.03 Thought can never be of anything illogical, since, if it were, we should have to think illogically.
3.0321 Though a state of affairs that would contravene the laws of physics can be represented by us spatially, one that would contravene the laws of geometry cannot.
3.1 In a proposition a thought finds an expression that can be perceived by the senses.
3.2 In a proposition a thought can be expressed in such a way that elements of the propositional sign correspond to the objects of the thought.
3.203 A name means an object. The object is its meaning. ('A' is the same sign as 'A'.)
3.221 Objects can only be named. Signs are their representatives. I can only speak about them: I cannot put them into words. Propositions can only say how things are, not what they are.
3.3 Only propositions have sense; only in the nexus of a proposition does a name have meaning.
3.326 In order to recognize a symbol by its sign we must observe how it is used with a sense.
3.328 If a sign is useless, it is meaningless. That is the point of Occam's maxim.
3.332 No proposition can make a statement about itself, because a propositional sign cannot be contained in itself.
3.4 A proposition determines a place in logical space. The existence of this logical place is guaranteed by the mere existence of the constituents - by the existence of the proposition with a sense.
3.411 In geometry and logic alike a place is a possibility: something can exist in it.
3.42 A proposition can determine only one place in logical space
3.5 A propositional sign, applied and thought out, is a thought.
PROPOSITIONS UNDER 4
4 A thought is a proposition with a sense.
4.001 The totality of propositions is language.
4.022 Man possesses the ability to construct languages capable of expressing every sense, without having any idea how each word has meaning or what its meaning is - just as people speak without knowing how the individual sounds are produced. It is not humanly possible to gather immediately from it what the logic of language is. Language disguises thought.
4.003 Most of the propositions and questions to be found in philosophical works are not false but nonsensical. Consequently we cannot give any answer to questions of this kind, but can only point out that they are nonsensical. Most of the propositions and questions of philosophers arise from our failure to understand the logic of our language. And it is not surprising that the deepest problems are in fact not problems at all.
4.0031 All philosophy is a 'critique of language'. The apparent logical form of a proposition need not be its real one.
4.01 A proposition is a picture of reality as we imagine it.
4.014 A gramophone record, the musical idea, the written notes, and the sound-waves, all stand to one another in the same internal relation of depicting that holds between language and the world. There is a general rule by means of which the musician can obtain the symphony from the score. That is what constitutes the inner similarity between these things.
4.022 A proposition shows its sense. A proposition shows how things stand if it is true. And it says that they do so stand.
4.024 To understand a proposition means to know what is the case if it is true.
4.05 Reality is compared with propositions.
4.06 A proposition can be true or false only in virtue of being a picture of reality.
4.063 An analogy to illustrate the concept of truth: imagine a black spot on white paper: you can describe the shape of the spot by saying, for each point on the sheet, whether it is black or white. To the fact that a point is black there corresponds a positive fact, and to the fact that a point is white (not black), a negative fact.
4.1 Propositions represent the existence and non-existence of states of affairs.
4.11 The totality of true propositions is the whole of natural science
4.111 Philosophy is not one of the natural sciences.
4.112 Philosophy aims at the logical clarification of thoughts. Philosophy is not a body of doctrine but an activity. A philosophical work consists essentially of elucidations. Without philosophy thoughts are, as it were, cloudy and indistinct: its task is to make them clear and to give them sharp boundaries.
4.1122 Darwin's theory has no more to do with philosophy than any other hypothesis in natural science.
4.113 Philosophy sets limits to the much disputed sphere of natural science.
4.121 Propositions cannot represent logical form: it is mirrored in them.
4.1212 What can be shown, cannot be said.
4.2 The sense of a proposition is its agreement and disagreement with possibilities of existence and non-existence of states of affairs.
4.21 The simplest kind of proposition, an elementary proposition, asserts the existence of a state of affairs.
4.211 It is a sign of a proposition's being elementary that there can be no elementary proposition contradicting it.
4.22 An elementary proposition consists of names. It is a nexus, a concatenation, of names.
4.242 Expressions of the form 'a = b' are, therefore, mere representational devices. They state nothing about the meaning of the signs 'a' and 'b'.
4.243 Can we understand two names without knowing whether they signify the same thing or two different things? - Can we understand a proposition in which two names occur without knowing whether their meaning is the same or different? Suppose I know the meaning of an English word and of a German word that means the same: then it is impossible for me to be unaware that they do mean the same; I must be capable of translating each into the other. Expressions like 'a = a', and those derived from them, are neither elementary propositions nor is there any other way in which they have sense.
4.25 If an elementary proposition is true, the state of affairs exists: if an elementary proposition is false, the state of affairs does not exist.
4.26 If all true elementary propositions are given, the result is a complete description of the world.
4.3 Truth-possibilities of elementary propositions mean Possibilities of existence and non-existence of states of affairs.
4.31 We can represent truth-possibilities by schemata of the following kind ('T' means 'true', 'F' means 'false'; the rows of 'T's' and 'F's' under the row of elementary propositions (pqr, pq, p) symbolize their truth-possibilities in a way that can easily be understood):

4.4 A proposition is an expression of agreement and disagreement with truth-possibilities of elementary propositions.
4.41 Truth-possibilities of elementary propositions are the conditions of the truth and falsity of propositions.
4.46 Among the possible groups of truth-conditions there are two extreme cases. In one of these cases the proposition is true for all the truth-possibilities of the elementary propositions. We say that the truth-conditions are tautological. In the second case the proposition is false for all the truth-possibilities: the truth-conditions are contradictory. In the first case we call the proposition a tautology; in the second, a contradiction.
4.461 Propositions show what they say; tautologies and contradictions show that they say nothing. (For example, I know nothing about the weather when I know that it is either raining or not raining.)
4.46211 Tautologies and contradictions are not, however, nonsensical. They are part of the symbolism, much as '0' is part of the symbolism of arithmetic.
4.462 Tautologies and contradictions are not pictures of reality. They do not represent any possible situations.
4.464 A tautology's truth is certain, a proposition's possible, a contradiction's impossible.
4.5 The general form of a proposition is: This is how things stand.
PROPOSITIONS UNDER 5
5 A proposition is a truth-function of elementary propositions. (An elementary proposition is a truth-function of itself.)
5.1 Truth-functions can be arranged in series. That is the foundation of the theory of probability.
5.101 The truth-functions of a given number of elementary propositions can always be set out in a schema of the following kind:

5.3 All propositions are results of truth-operations on elementary propositions.
5.5 Every truth-function is a result of successive applications to elementary propositions of the operation
5.5571 If I cannot say a priori what elementary propositions there are, then the attempt to do so must lead to obvious nonsense.
5.6 The limits of my language mean the limits of my world.
5.61 We cannot think what we cannot think; so what we cannot think we cannot say either.
5.62 This remark provides the key to the problem, how much truth there is in solipsism. For what the solipsist means is quite correct; only it cannot be said, but makes itself manifest. The world is my world: this is manifest in the fact that the limits of language (of that language which alone I understand) mean the limits of my world.
5.621 The world and life are one.
5.63 I am my world. (The microcosm.)
PROPOSITIONS UNDER 6
6 The general form of a truth-function is [p,
x,, N(x,)]. This is the general form of a proposition.
6.1 The propositions of logic are tautologies.
6.11 Therefore the propositions of logic say nothing. (They are the analytic propositions.)
6.1251 Hence there can never be surprises in logic.
6.13 Logic is not a body of doctrine, but a mirror-image of the world. Logic is transcendental.
6.2 Mathematics is a logical method. The propositions of mathematics are equations, and therefore pseudo-propositions.
6.21 A proposition of mathematics does not express a thought.
6.211 Indeed in real life a mathematical proposition is never what we want. Rather, we make use of mathematical propositions only in inferences from propositions that do not belong to mathematics to others that likewise do not belong to mathematics.
6.22 The logic of the world, which is shown in tautologies by the propositions of logic, is shown in equations by mathematics.
6.2331 The process of calculating serves to bring about that intuition. Calculation is not an experiment.
6.234 Mathematics is a method of logic.
6.3 The exploration of logic means the exploration of everything that is subject to law. And outside logic everything is accidental.
6.4 All propositions are of equal value.
6.41 The sense of the world must lie outside the world.
6.42 So too it is impossible for there to be propositions of ethics. Propositions can express nothing that is higher.
6.423 It is impossible to speak about the will in so far as it is the subject of ethical attributes. And the will as a phenomenon is of interest only to psychology.
6.43 If the good or bad exercise of the will does alter the world, it can alter only the limits of the world, not the facts - not what can be expressed by means of language. The world of the happy man is a different one from that of the unhappy man.
6.431 At death the world does not alter, but comes to an end.
6.4311 Death is not an event in life: we do not live to experience death.
6.4312 Not only is there no guarantee of the temporal immortality of the human soul but this assumption completely fails to accomplish the purpose for which it has always been intended. Or is some riddle solved by my surviving for ever? Is not this eternal life itself as much of a riddle as our present life? The solution of the riddle of life in space and time lies outside space and time.
6.44 It is not how things are in the world that is mystical, but that it exists.
6.45 To view the world sub specie aeterni is to view it as a whole - a limited whole. Feeling the world as a limited whole - it is this that is mystical.
6.5 When the answer cannot be put into words, neither can the question be put into words. The riddle does not exist. If a question can be framed at all, it is also possible to answer it.
6.51 Scepticism is not irrefutable, but obviously nonsensical, when it tries to raise doubts where no questions can be asked. For doubt can exist only where a question exists, a question only where an answer exists, and an answer only where something can be said.
6.52 We feel that even when all possible scientific questions have been answered, the problems of life remain completely untouched. Of course there are then no questions left, and this itself is the answer.
6.521 The solution of the problem of life is seen in the vanishing of the problem.
6.522 There are, indeed, things that cannot be put into words. They make themselves manifest. They are what is mystical.
6.53 The correct method in philosophy would really be the following: to say nothing except what can be said, i.e., propositions of natural science - i.e., something that has nothing to do with philosophy - and then, whenever someone else wanted to say something metaphysical, to demonstrate to him that he had failed to give a meaning to certain signs in his propositions.
6.54 My propositions are elucidatory in this way: he who understands me finally recognizes them as senseless, when he has climbed out through them, on them, over them. (He must so to speak throw away the ladder, after he has climbed up it.)
PROPOSITIONS UNDER 7
7 What we cannot speak about we must pass over in silence.


Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein
1889-1951

Wittgenstein's grave in the grounds of the Church of the Ascension, Cambridge, England



A meeting

This Day in History 1838: Ralph Waldo Emerson meets Thomas Carlyle
August 26, 1838
Ralph Waldo Emerson meets Thomas Carlyle

On this day in 1838, Ralph Waldo Emerson met influential British writer Thomas Carlyle, with whom he would correspond for 38 years. Carlyle and the English romantic poets would have an important effect on Emerson's work.

Ralph Waldo Emerson came from a long line of American ministers. He enjoyed a sheltered childhood in Boston, and attended Harvard Divinity School. Although Emerson accepted a position as pastor of a Boston Church in 1829, the death of his wife in 1831 deepened his existing religious doubts. He resigned two years later, explaining to his congregation that he had started to doubt the sacraments.

He moved to Concord, then set off for Europe where he met leading writers and thinkers of the day. During a visit to a Paris botanical garden, he decided to become a "naturalist." In 1836, he published an anonymous booklet called Nature, that questioned traditional concepts of God and nature. Influenced by Hindu texts and English Romanticism, he argued that man can rise above the material world and discover a sense of transcendent spirituality. Nature defined the philosophy that would inform his future essays, lectures and poetry. He championed individual spirit, instinct and intellect over traditional religion, education and thought.

In the 1840s, he joined the Transcendentalist movement, and founded The Dial, a magazine of Transcendentalist thought edited at first by Margaret Fuller, then by Emerson. His two volumes of essays, published in 1841 and 1844, including essays like "Self Reliance," made him world famous. His 1847 poetry collection, May-Day and Other Pieces included "Concord Hymn," about the battle of Concord which included the famous line "the shot heard round the world." In Representative Men (1850), he wrote sketches of his role models including Napoleon and Shakespeare.

Emerson's later work became less idealistic and more pragmatic. In The Conduct of Life, considered by some critics to be his most mature work, he takes a compassionate, philosophic approach to human frailty. Enerson's writings were extremely influential with American writers including Emily Dickinson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry David Thoreau, Louisa May Alcott, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman and many others. Emerson died in Concord in 1882, at the age of 78. He is buried in the same cemetery as Louisa May Alcott.

Road Runner

Psalm 1:1

Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, nor standeth in the way of sinners, nor sitteth in the seat of scorners.


Prov.28:9


He that turneth away his ear from hearing the law.even his prayer shall be abomination.




The beauty of summer is echoed in the delicate balance of the lacy dragonfly as he perches on an Echinacea blossom.






Chess: “Engine”
Rolls-Royce “Swiss Watch” “cathedra”
RoadRunner
"Swiss Army Knife"












“RoadRunner” Roadrunner is a supercomputer
built by IBM at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in
New Mexico, USA.
Currently the world's fastest computer, the US$133-million Roadrunner is
designed for a peak performance of 1.7 petaflops, achieving 1.026 on May 25,
2008,[1][2][3]
and to be the world's first TOP500 Linpack sustained 1.0 petaflops system. It is a one-of-a-kind
supercomputer, built from commodity parts, with many novel design features.








Military Supercomputer Sets Record

SAN FRANCISCO — An American military supercomputer, assembled from
components originally designed for video game machines, has reached a
long-sought-after computing milestone by processing more than 1.026
quadrillion calculations per second.




I.B.M.


The Roadrunner supercomputer costs $133 million and will be used to study nuclear weapons.







The new machine is more than twice as fast as the previous fastest supercomputer, the I.B.M. BlueGene/L, which is based at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California.

The
new $133 million supercomputer, called Roadrunner in a reference to the
state bird of New Mexico, was devised and built by engineers and
scientists at I.B.M. and Los Alamos National Laboratory,
based in Los Alamos, N.M. It will be used principally to solve
classified military problems to ensure that the nation’s stockpile of
nuclear weapons will continue to work correctly as they age. The
Roadrunner will simulate the behavior of the weapons in the first
fraction of a second during an explosion.

Before it is placed in a classified environment, it will also be used to explore scientific problems like climate change. The greater speed of the Roadrunner will make it possible for scientists to test global climate models with higher accuracy.

To
put the performance of the machine in perspective, Thomas P.
D’Agostino, the administrator of the National Nuclear Security
Administration, said that if all six billion people on earth used hand
calculators and performed calculations 24 hours a day and seven days a
week, it would take them 46 years to do what the Roadrunner can in one
day.

The machine is an unusual blend of chips used in consumer
products and advanced parallel computing technologies. The lessons that
computer scientists learn by making it calculate even faster are seen
as essential to the future of both personal and mobile consumer
computing.

The high-performance computing goal, known as a
petaflop — one thousand trillion calculations per second — has long
been viewed as a crucial milestone by military, technical and
scientific organizations in the United States, as well as a growing
group including Japan, China and the European Union. All view supercomputing technology as a symbol of national economic competitiveness.

By
running programs that find a solution in hours or even less time —
compared with as long as three months on older generations of computers
— petaflop machines like Roadrunner have the potential to fundamentally
alter science and engineering, supercomputer experts say. Researchers
can ask questions and receive answers virtually interactively and can
perform experiments that would previously have been impractical.

“This is equivalent to the four-minute mile of supercomputing,” said Jack Dongarra, a computer scientist at the University of Tennessee who for several decades has tracked the performance of the fastest computers.

Each
new supercomputing generation has brought scientists a step closer to
faithfully simulating physical reality. It has also produced software
and hardware technologies that have rapidly spilled out into the rest
of the computer industry for consumer and business products.

Technology
is flowing in the opposite direction as well. Consumer-oriented
computing began dominating research and development spending on
technology shortly after the cold war ended in the late 1980s, and that
trend is evident in the design of the world’s fastest computers.

The
Roadrunner is based on a radical design that includes 12,960 chips that
are an improved version of an I.B.M. Cell microprocessor, a parallel
processing chip originally created for Sony’s PlayStation 3 video-game machine. The Sony chips are used as accelerators, or turbochargers, for portions of calculations.

The Roadrunner also includes a smaller number of more conventional Opteron processors, made by Advanced Micro Devices, which are already widely used in corporate servers.

“Roadrunner
tells us about what will happen in the next decade,” said Horst Simon,
associate laboratory director for computer science at the Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory. “Technology is coming from the consumer
electronics market and the innovation is happening first in terms of
cellphones and embedded electronics.”

The innovations flowing
from this generation of high-speed computers will most likely result
from the way computer scientists manage the complexity of the system’s
hardware.

Roadrunner, which consumes roughly three megawatts of
power, or about the power required by a large suburban shopping center,
requires three separate programming tools because it has three types of
processors. Programmers have to figure out how to keep all of the
116,640 processor cores in the machine occupied simultaneously in order
for it to run effectively.

“We’ve proved some skeptics wrong,”
said Michael R. Anastasio, a physicist who is director of the Los
Alamos National Laboratory. “This gives us a window into a whole new
way of computing. We can look at phenomena we have never seen before.”

Solving
that programming problem is important because in just a few years
personal computers will have microprocessor chips with dozens or even
hundreds of processor cores. The industry is now hunting for new
techniques for making use of the new computing power. Some experts,
however, are skeptical that the most powerful supercomputers will
provide useful examples.

“If Chevy wins the Daytona 500, they try
to convince you the Chevy Malibu you’re driving will benefit from
this,” said Steve Wallach, a supercomputer designer who is chief
scientist of Convey Computer, a start-up firm based in Richardson, Tex.

Those who work with weapons might not have much to offer the video gamers of the world, he suggested.

Many executives and scientists see Roadrunner as an example of the resurgence of the United States in supercomputing.


Although American companies had dominated the field since its inception
in the 1960s, in 2002 the Japanese Earth Simulator briefly claimed the
title of the world’s fastest by executing more than 35 trillion
mathematical calculations per second. Two years later, a supercomputer
created by I.B.M. reclaimed the speed record for the United States. The
Japanese challenge, however, led Congress and the Bush administration
to reinvest in high-performance computing.

“It’s a sign that we
are maintaining our position,“ said Peter J. Ungaro, chief executive of
Cray, a maker of supercomputers. He noted, however, that “the real
competitiveness is based on the discoveries that are based on the
machines.”

Having surpassed the petaflop barrier, I.B.M. is
already looking toward the next generation of supercomputing. “You do
these record-setting things because you know that in the end we will
push on to the next generation and the one who is there first will be
the leader,” said Nicholas M. Donofrio, an I.B.M. executive vice
president.

By breaking the petaflop barrier sooner than had been
generally expected, the United States’ supercomputer industry has been
able to sustain a pace of continuous performance increases, improving a
thousandfold in processing power in 11 years. The next thousandfold
goal is the exaflop, which is a quintillion calculations per second,
followed by the zettaflop, the yottaflop and the xeraflop.

Anthony Burgess

LITERATURA EN LENGUA INGLESA :
(...) The literature produced from about 1880 to 1914 (in Britain) is characterised either by an attempt to find substitutes for a religion which seems dead, or by a kind of spiritual emptiness –a sense of the hopelessness of trying to believe in anything.

There were many possible substitutes for religion. One was Art, and Walter Pater (1839-1894) was its prophet. ‘Art for art’s sake’ (...) was the theme of books like Marius the Epicurean and Studies in the History of the Renaissance. It was one’s duty, said Pater (...), to cultivate pleasure, to drink deep from the fountains of natural and created beauty. In other words, he advocated hedonism as a way of life.

(...)

Hedonism was the thesis of some of Oscar Wilde’s witty essays, as also of his novel The Picture of Dorian Gray. Wilde (...) seem, in the latter book, however, to be concerned with showing the dangers of asking too much from life. The beautiful Dorian Gray –Faustus-like– wishes that he should remain eternally young and handsome, while his picture, painted in the finest flush of his beauty, should grow old in his stead. The wish is granted: Dorian remains ever-young, but his portrait shows signs of ever-increasing age and, moreover, the scars of the crimes attendant on asking for too much (a murder, the ruining of many women, unnameable debauchery). Dorian, repentant, tries to destroy his portrait, symbolically quelling his sins, but –magically– it is he himself who dies, monstruous with age and ugliness, and his portrait that reverts to its former perfection of youthful beauty. The sense of guilt –as much mediaeval as Victorian– intrudes into Wilde’s bright godless world unexpectedly, and this book prepares us for those later works of his –written under the shadow and shame of his prison-sentence– which lack the old wit and contain a sombre seriousness –The Ballad of Reading Gaol and De Profundis.

(...)

“The Coming of the Modern Age” in English Literature, Anthony Burgess, Harlow, Longman, 1995.

Dorothy L. Sayers

Dorothy L Sayers | Books | guardian.co.uk
Dorothy L Sayers




* Tuesday July 22 2008 15:39 BST

1893-1957

"The only sin passion can commit is to be joyless."
Birthplace

The headmaster's house at Christchurch Cathedral School, Oxford. Her father was the headmaster.
Education

Godolphin School in Salisbury, then on to Somerville College, Oxford, with a scholarship. One of the first women to graduate from Oxford, she left in 1915 with a first class honours degree in modern languages.
Other jobs

From 1922 to 1931 she was a copywriter at the London advertising agency, Bensons. While she apparently enjoyed the work and was good at it, in later essays she robustly condemned the business of creating need where none existed. Nevertheless, she admired the copywriter's deft use of English: "the richest, noblest, most flexible and sensitive language ever written or spoken."
Did you know?

Sayers was a keen motorbike rider, and has earned quiet respect in certain circles for the faultless descriptions of these machines in her books.
Critical verdict

Part of the Golden Age of mystery writers working between the wars, Sayers is often credited as the most intelligent of them all. Certainly her plots are ingenious and intricate, and she relishes technical detail and literary quotation, although QD Leavis once cuttingly remarked "She displays knowingness about literature without any sensitiveness to it or any feeling for quality". Other critics have noted an occasional tendency to become bogged down in detail, as in the involved plot of The Five Red Herrings (1931).Her first novel, Whose Body (1923), introduced the world to the aristocratic crime fighter Lord Peter Wimsey, who featured in 14 subsequent novels and short stories. Athletic, scholarly, stylish and sharp, Lord Peter developed over the course of the books into a fully rounded and psychologically complex character, utterly adored by his public. By the late 1930s Sayers vowed there would be no more Wimsey novels, but on her death an unfinished book, Thrones, Dominations, was found, and completed by the author Jill Paton Walsh. Other works starred the travelling salesman Montague Egg, but Wimsey remained her most popular creation.A passionate Anglican, she also wrote extensive theological essays, and seven plays, causing a stir with The Man Born to Be King (1940), by making Christ speak modern English.In addition to the plays, essays and books there were endless letters, reviews and some early feminist writing. She also taught herself old Italian and her translation of Dante's Divine Comedy is still in print today.
Recommended works

Nine Tailors (1934), an atmospheric tale of stolen jewels, faceless corpses and bell-ringing set in the fens of Sayers's childhood, is generally felt to be one of the best of the Wimsey stories. Sayers stopped halfway through writing it to dash off the satirical Murder Must Advertise (1933) because she had to meet a deadline and didn't want to rush her pet project.The introduction of detective story writer Harriet Vane in Strong Poison (1930) caused a schism. Some readers felt the love interest distracted from the purity of the detective story form, pulling the books out of shape and making them too long and dull, while others simply didn't think she was worthy of their hero. Sayers was inundated with letters begging her not to let Lord Peter marry "that horrid girl".It isn't hard to see the relationship between the dashing Lord Peter and Sayers's alter ego, Harriet Vane, as an attempt to improve on the disappointments of Sayers's own romantic life. Harriet (and presumably Sayers) certainly seem to approve when, in Gaudy Night (1935), young Beatrice declares that she would rather have a motorbike than a husband.Sayers herself liked the dimension Peter and Harriet's relationship added to the traditional mystery story form. She had always been something of a purist, but with Gaudy Night she does just what Harriet does, and writes a book about real people and messy feelings, rather than a classic puzzle story. Sayers is no James Ellroy but she recognised that while, "some readers prefer their detective stories to be of this conventional kind ... I believe the future to be with those writers who can contrive to strike the note of sincerity and to persuade us that violence really hurts."
Influences

Sayers considered Wilkie Collins to be the father of the detective story, and drew on the work of Edgar Allen Poe and Arthur Conan Doyle.
Now read on

The other leading Golden Age writers were Agatha Christie, Margery Allingham and Ngaio Marsh.
Adaptations

There have been two TV adaptations, one starring Ian Carmichael as Wimsey (1972-1976) and a later one (1986) featuring Edward Petherbridge, with Harriet Walter as Harriet Vane. The series were well received although the screen can make Lord Peter's period mannerisms jar in a way the page doesn't, and you have to get past the wooden BBC production of some of the earlier episodes.
Recommended biography

Dorothy L Sayers: Her life and Soul (1993) by her friend Barbara Reynolds, and James Brabazon's Dorothy L Sayers: The Life of a Courageous Woman (1981) are well respected.
Useful links and work online

Work online
· The Mind of the Maker: one of Sayers's religious essays

Background
· The Dorothy L Sayers Society
· Personal opinion and helpful summary of Sayers's life and work
· Dorothy L Sayers archive
· Discussion forum

Is it true?

I read in Books and Writers this:


"Literature gets heavily drawn upon in Miss Sayers's writings, and her attitude to it is revealing. She displays knowingness about literature without any sensitiveness to it or any feeling for quality—i.e. she has an academic literary taste over and above having no general taste at all." -Q.D Leavis 'The Case of Miss Dorothy Sayers: Gaudy Night and Busman's Honeymoon'

Is it the case?




Dorothy L. Sayers
Dorothy L(eigh) Sayers (1893-1957)



British novelist, essayist, medieval scholar and anthologist. Sayers is best-known for her stories about the amateur aristocratic detective hero Lord Peter Wimsey, who made his breakthrough in the novel WHOSE BODY? (1923), wearing a top hat like Fred Astaire. After the late 1930s, Sayers wrote no more detective novels, but concentrated on theological dramas, radio plays and verse.

"Lord Peter's library was one of the most delightful bachelor rooms in London. Its scheme was black and primrose; its walls were lined with rare editions, and its chairs and Chesterfield sofa suggested the embraces of the houris. In one corner stood a black baby-grand, and wood fire leaped on a wide old-fashioned hearth, and the Sevres vases on the chimney-piece were filled with ruddy and gold chrysanthemums." (from Whose Body?)

Dorothy Leigh Sayers was born in Oxford, the daughter of the Rev. Henry Sayers, the director of the Christchurch Cathedral Choir School, and Helen Mary (Leigh) Sayers. From the early age Sayers was very gifted in languages, learning Latin by the age of seven and French from her governess. In 1912 she won a scholarship to the Oxford women's college Somerville, and in 1916 she published her first book, a verse collection titled OP I.

In 1920 Sayers earned her M.A., among one of the first group of women to be granted degrees from Oxford University. She worked in Yorkshire and in France, where she was a secretary to a shell-shocked veteran, and as a reader for an Oxford publishing house. During these years Sayers went through a period she did not advertise much later. She had an illegitimate son, who was brought up by her cousin, Ivy Shrimpton. The father was Bill White, a motorcyclist and car salesman. Sayers rejected contraceptives, which caused a problem with her lover, the Russian born-novelist John Cournos, whom she met in 1921. Sayers wanted to marry him, but Cournos told her that he did not believe in marriage. Letters from this unhappy affair with him are now housed at Harvad University. Although her cousin took care of the child, Sayers followed closely his upbringing and supplied funds for this purpose. Sayers kept the child secret even from her parents.

In 1926 Sayers married the journalist, Captain Oswald Arthur Fleming, who was divorced and had two children. He died in 1950. Sayers's seven-year long job at Benson's advertising agency in London began in 1922. Soon after joining the agency she published the novel, Whose Body? in which Wimsey is the major character. In the story Lord Peter solves the puzzle of the body in the bath. Wimsey's prime criteria is to find out how the murder was done. "Once you've got the How, the Why drives it home," says the detective in BUSMAN'S HONEYMOON (1937). Wimsey appeared in 11 novels and 21 stories. In the beginning the young protagonist is a carefree war hero, whose character still is defined by the intellectual style of the Edwardian age and Wodehousian wit. Wimsey has money, free time and he knows the important people. His political views are crystallized in the contempt for "bosheviks". Wimsey's professional companion is Charler Parker. When Lord Peter is impulsive, Parker has cautious and solid character. Wimsey developed gradually into a man of conscience and moral responsibility, but humor prevailed throughout the novel series. "The essential Peter," Sayers once wrote, "is seen to be the familiar figure of the interpretative artists, the romantic soul at war with a realistic brain." Lord Peter Wimsey appeared for the first time on the screen in The Silent Passenger (1935). Peter Haddon portrayed the amateur sleuth.

In Busman's Honeymoon the monocled detective marries Harriet Vane, a writer of mystery books, Sayers's own alter ego. Vane was introduced in STRONG POISON (1930), in which Lord Peter saves her. She is accused of poisoning the novelist Philip Boyes, with whom she had lived for almost a year. The love interest started to build from HAVE HIS CARCASE (1932). In the story Vane discovers a dead body on the beach and she is again suspected of the murder. MURDER MUST ADVERTISE (1933) was full of observations of manner and mocked the superficial world of conspicuous consumption. The critic and awarded mystery writer H.R.F. Keating included THE NINE TAILORS (1934) in 1987 among the 100 best crime and mystery books ever published. The story is famous for its detailed account of the art of bell-ringing.

With such writers as G.K. Chesterton, Christie, and Fr. Ronald Knox, Sayers founded the Detection Club in 1929. She purchased a home at Witham in Essex, and from 1931 Sayers devoted herself entirely to writing and preparing radio plays for the BBC. In 1932 Sayers began to write memoirs of her childhood. She abandoned the project after thirty-six pages but used them later in the novel CAT O' MARY, which was never published.

After the appearance of Busman's Honeymoon Sayers turned from mystery fiction to other genres. Her only detective novel without Wimsey was THE DOCUMENT IN THE CASE (1930), co-written with Robert Eustace. She published also 11 short stories in which the commercial traveller Montague Egg solved crimes, and wrote with members of The Detection Club such composite novels as THE FLOATING ADMIRAL (1931), ASK A POLICEMAN (1933), and DOUBLE DEATH (1939).

A devout Anglo-Catholic, Sayers was for many years a friend of the Oxford writers known as the Inklings. In THE MIND OF THE MAKER Sayers tried to explain the Trinitarian nature of God, the Divine Creator, by analogy with the three-fold activity of the creative artist—involving idea, energy, and power. With few exceptions her plays were religious dramas, among them THE ZEAL OF THY HOUSE (1937), set in the twelfth century and based on an incident that had occurred during the burning and rebuilding of the choir at Canterbury, and THE DEVIL TO PAY (1939). The play-cycle THE MAN BORN TO BE KING (1942) was about the life of Christ. As a religious writer Sayers aimed for high literary quality, but she occasionally suffered hair loss when she got under stress.

In 1950 Sayers was awarded a Litt.D. by the University of Durham. Her last major work was translation of Dante's Divine Comedy. The result was a fast-paced text, in Victorian style verse, which takes many liberties with the original. The work was finished by Barbara Reynolds after Sayers's death on December 17, 1957 from a heart failure.

Sayers put aside her 13th full-length Lord Peter novel in 1938. The book, which was finished by Jill Paton Walsh, appeared in 1998 under the title THRONES, DOMINATIONS. Set in 1936, the story revolves around the murder of two beautiful young women. There's also a subplot involving the new King, Edward VIII, succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, King George V.

Sayers's mystery novels have received serious attention from academic critics, partly because of her other books. Q.D. Leavis attacked as early as in the 1930s this attitude in her article 'The Case of Miss Dorothy Sayers: Gaudy Night and Busman's Honeymoon' in Scrutiny, Vol. VI (1937): "Literature gets heavily drawn upon in Miss Sayers's writings, and her attitude to it is revealing. She displays knowingness about literature without any sensitiveness to it or any feeling for quality—i.e. she has an academic literary taste over and above having no general taste at all."